The Post‑Mauryan Empire

• Founder & Origin: Established by Pushyamitra Shunga, the Brahman commander-in-chief (Senapati) of the Maurya army, who assassinated the last Mauryan ruler, Brihadratha, during a military parade in 185 BCE.
• Capital: Shifted from Pataliputra to Vidisha (Madhya Pradesh).
• Territorial Extent: Northwestern and central India, up to the Narmada River in the south.
• Religious Character: Strongly revived Vedic Brahmanism and Brahmanical culture.
  • Performed two Ashvamedha Yagnas (horse sacrifices), recorded in Dhanadeva's Ayodhya Inscription.
  • Patanjali — father of Sanskrit grammar — was his high priest and authored the Mahabhashya.
• Key Conflicts: Defeated Indo-Greek invaders Demetrius and Menander; fought Kalinga King Kharavela and expanded into Vidarbha.
• Art & Literature: Despite Buddhist text Divyavadana calling him a destroyer of monasteries, he renovated and expanded the stupas at Sanchi and Bharhut with stone gateways.
• Agnimitra (149–141 BCE): Pushyamitra's son, hero of Kalidasa's play Malavikagnimitram.
• Decline: Last ruler Devabhuti (83–73 BCE) was assassinated by his Brahman minister Vasudeva Kanva.

• Founder: Vasudeva Kanva, after assassinating last Shunga king Devabhuti.
• Classification: Also known as "Shungabhrityas" ("Servants of the Shungas").
• Capital: Pataliputra.
• Decline: Last ruler Susharman was assassinated by Simuka, paving the way for the Satavahana Empire.

• Identity & Region: Also known as Andhras/Andhrabhrityas. Ruled the Deccan — modern Maharashtra, Andhra Pradesh, Telangana, Karnataka & parts of Gujarat.
• Founder: Simuka (Sindhuka / Shiprak).
• Capitals: Paithan (Pratisthan) on the Godavari; earlier capital believed to be Amravati.
• Official Language: Prakrit. King Hala composed Gathasaptasati.
• Naming vs. Succession: Matrilineal naming (Gautamiputra Satakarni, Vashishtiputra Pulumavi) but strictly patrilineal succession (only sons became kings).
• Land Grants: First dynasty to donate tax-free land grants (Agrahara) to Brahmins and Buddhist monks.
• Coinage: Lead (imported from Rome), potin, copper, bronze, silver — with Prakrit inscriptions.
• Satakarni I: First to assume the title 'Satakarni'; his two Ashvamedha & one Rajasuya Yagna recorded in the Naneghat Inscription of Queen Nayanika.
• Gautamiputra Satakarni (106–130 CE): Greatest Satavahana ruler (21st king). Destroyed the Saka Kshaharata dynasty by defeating Nahapana; took the title "Eka Brahmana" (Nasik Inscription, by mother Gautami Balashri); strictly enforced Varna system.
• Vashishtiputra Pulumavi (130–154 CE): Married daughter of Saka King Rudradaman I (Kanheri Inscription) yet was defeated by him twice; shifted capital to Pratisthana, expanded Rome trade.
• Yajnasri Satakarni (165–194 CE): Last great king — coins depict ships, showing maritime trade.
• Local Administration: Rural units run by Golmikas — commanders of 9 chariots, 9 elephants, 25 horses, 45 foot soldiers.

• Origin: Emerged in Kalinga (modern Odisha) after Mauryan decline; also called the Mahameghavahana Dynasty ("Lord of the Great Cloud").
• Founder: Mahameghavarman.
• Kharavela — the greatest ruler (3rd of the dynasty): re-established Kalinga's military supremacy, took the title "Bhikshu Raja" (King Monk), a devout patron of Jainism; defeated the Satavahanas, Indo-Greeks and Magadhan rulers; excavated rock-cut caves on Udayagiri Hills (Rani Gumpha, Hathigumpha, Ganesh Gumpha).
• Hathigumpha Inscription: Primary, undated source on Kharavela's life — written in Prakrit and Brahmi script, records achievements up to his 38th year.

• Origin: Hellenistic rulers from Bactria (north of Hindukush, modern Afghanistan/Iran border).
• First Invader: Demetrius I (Euthydemus dynasty), c. 190 BCE — captured Punjab & Gandhara, capital at Sakala (Sialkot); coins with elephant helmet & bilingual inscriptions.
• Menander I (Milinda) (165–145 BCE): Most famous Indo-Greek ruler. Converted to Buddhism after a debate with monk Nagasena — recorded in the Pali text Milindapanho ("Questions of Milinda").
• Coinage firsts: First to issue gold coins in India; first to put ruler portraits on coins; bilingual, biscriptal (Greek + Kharosthi Prakrit).
• Cultural Contributions: Hellenistic art inspired the Gandhara School; introduced the theatre curtain (Yavanika) and Horashastra (astrology, from Greek "horoscope").

• Origin: Nomadic Central Asian tribes entering via the Bolan Pass, in search of pastures.
• Five Branches with capitals in Kabul, Punjab, Mathura, Western India, and Upper Deccan. First Saka king: Maues (Moga), in Gandhara.
• Vikram Samvat (57 BCE): Started by King Vikramaditya of Ujjain to mark his victory over the Sakas.
• Western Kshatrapas — Kshaharata Dynasty: Nahapana controlled Barygaza (Bharuch) & Ujjain, killed by Gautamiputra Satakarni.
• Western Kshatrapas — Kardamaka Dynasty: Founded by Chastana; famous ruler Rudradaman I (130–150 CE) repaired the Sudarshan Lake (Girnar, Gujarat) without forced labour (Vishti), and issued the Junagarh Rock Inscription — the earliest & longest flawless Sanskrit inscription in India (Brahmi script, "Kavya" style).
• Decline: Last Western Kshatrapa, Rudrasimha III, defeated and killed by Gupta Emperor Chandragupta II (Vikramaditya) in the early 5th century CE.

• Origin: From Iran (ancient Persia), replaced the Sakas in northwest India. Founder: Mithridates I.
• Gondophares I (19–46 CE): Most famous Indo-Parthian king. Saint Thomas (Apostle of Jesus Christ) visited his court to propagate Christianity in India.
• Capital: Taxila (administrative centre) and Kabul.

• Origin: Part of the nomadic Yuezhi (Tocharian) tribe of Central Asia, displaced by the Xiongnu; unified five clans under the Kadphises dynasty.

• Kujula Kadphises (30–80 CE): Founder — issued copper coins imitating Roman coins, titles Dharma-thida and Sach-dharma-thida.
• Vima Kadphises (95–127 CE): First to introduce gold coins for regular use in India; his lineage as Kanishka's father confirmed by the Rabatak Inscription.
• Kanishka I (127–150 CE, traditional 78 CE): The greatest Kushan king, the "Second Ashoka." Capitals: Purushpura (Peshawar), secondary Mathura.
  • Shaka Era (78 CE) — later adopted by the Govt. of India (1957) as the National Calendar.
  • Fourth Buddhist Council at Kundalvan (Kashmir), presided by Vasumitra — split Buddhism into Hinayana & Mahayana; Kanishka patronized Mahayana.
  • First Indian rulers to fully control the Silk Road — traded silk, spices, textiles for Roman gold.
  • Empire stretched from the Ganges to the Oxus (Amu Darya) River.
• Kanishka's court scholars: Charaka (physician, Charaka Samhita); Ashvaghosa (poet, Buddhacharita, Saundarananda); Nagarjuna ("Indian Einstein," Theory of Emptiness / Shunyata, Madhyamika Sutra); Vasumitra (presided 4th Council, compiled Mahavibhasha Sutra).
• Decline: Shift towards Shaivism — last great ruler Vasudeva I adopted a Hindu name, depicted Lord Shiva on coins.

The Kushan period witnessed a monumental flourish in Indian sculpture and art.

• Satrap System: Provinces run by military governors — Mahakshatrapas (senior) and Kshatrapas (junior), from the Greek "Strategos".
• Devakula Concept: Mortuary temples worshipping statues of deceased kings, reinforcing divine kingship (Devaputra, "Son of God").